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On the 6th of March, within less than three weeks after Senator Sumnerhad submitted his revolutionary resolution, for reconstruction, and adeclaration that it is the duty of Congress "to see that everywhere inthis extensive (secession) territory slavery shall cease to existpractically, as it has already ceased to exist constitutionally ormorally," that President Lincoln, not assenting to the assumption, senta message to Congress proposing a plan of voluntary and compensatedemancipation. In this message he suggested that "the United States oughtto co-operate with any State which may adopt gradual abolishment ofslavery, giving to each State pecuniary aid," etc., and he invited aninterview upon the 10th of March, with the representatives of the borderStates, to consider the subject. They did not conclude at this interviewto adopt his suggestions, and some of them were much incensed that theproposition had been made, believing it would alienate and drive many,hitherto rightly disposed, into secession.

The end of Soleiman was dramatic in the extreme. He was told that hisfollowers should be spared if he himself would surrender. He agreed tothe terms, and, after administering a dose of poison to himself, histhree wives and five children, he mounted his chair, and was borne tothe camp of his enemies, where he arrived a corpse sitting erect, theimperial turban on his head and the keys of his capital clasped tightlyin his hand. His head, preserved in honey, was sent to Peking. Theimperial troops poured into Tali-fu. A general massacre occurred. ThoseMohammedans that were not slaughtered fled to the mountains, where theystill continued to keep up a guerilla warfare. But the rebellion waspractically at an end, and by 1874 the authority of the centralgovernment was firmly established throughout the province.

Of criticism of what has been called the higher kind, I recommend thereading of very little, or better, none at all. Read Shakespeare; seekaid to understand his language, if that be in any way obscure to you;but that once comprehended, apprehension of his purpose and meaning willcome untold to those who can attain it in any way. In my own edition Iavoided as much as possible the introduction of æsthetic criticism, notbecause I felt incapable of writing it; for it is easy work; on thecontrary, I freely essayed it when it was necessary as an aid to thesettlement of the text, or of like questions; and by its use I thinkthat I succeeded in establishing some points of importance. But in myjudgment the duty of an editor is performed when he puts the reader, asnearly as possible, in the same position, for the apprehension of hisauthor's meaning, that he would have occupied if he had beencontemporary with him and had received from him a correct copy of hiswritings. More than this seems to me to verge upon impertinence. Uponthis point I find myself supported by William Aldis Wright,[11] who isin my judgment the ablest of all the living editors of Shakespeare; whobrings to his task a union of scholarship, critical judgment, and commonsense, which is very rare in any department of literature, andparticularly in Shakespearian criticism, and whose labors in thisdepartment of letters are small and light in comparison with the graverstudies in which he is constantly engaged. He, in the preface to hislately published edition of "King Lear" in the Clarendon Press series,says: "It has been objected to the editions of Shakespeare's plays inthe Clarendon Press series that the notes are too exclusively of averbal character, and that they do not deal with æsthetic, or as it iscalled, the higher criticism. So far as I have had to do with them, Ifrankly confess that æsthetic notes have been deliberately andintentionally omitted, because one main object in these editions is toinduce those for whom they are especially designed to read and studyShakespeare himself, and not to become familiar with opinions about him.Perhaps, too, it is because I cannot help experiencing a certain feelingof resentment when I read such notes, that I am unwilling to intrudeupon others what I should regard myself as impertinent. They are inreality too personal and objective, and turn the commentator into ashowman. With such sign-post criticism I have no sympathy. Nor do I wishto add to the awful amazement which must possess the soul of Shakespearewhen he knows of the manner in which his works have been tabulated, andclassified, and labelled with a purpose, after the most approved method,like modern tendenzschriften. Such criticism applied to Shakespeare isnothing less than gross anachronism."

Earlier ages, that had not reached this happy hopelessness, producedgreat bookworms. When the old monks had devoured their conventlibraries, they were fain to pay vast sums occasionally for extrareading, as St. Jerome did for the works of Origen; whereas now areviewer can only glance at his "complimentary copies" of new books, sonumerous are they. Bacon argued against abridgements, as if the body ofliterature could be compassed in his day. A century or two ago therewere prodigious Porsons and Johnsons; but such gluttons are now rare. Itis true that Mill, between his fourth and eighth years, read in theoriginal all Herodotus and a good part of Xenophon, Lucian, Isocrates,Diogenes Laertius, Plato, and the Annual Register, besides Hume, Gibbon,Robertson, Miller, Mosheim, and other historians; while before the ageof thirteen he had mastered the whole of Homer, Virgil, Horace, Sallust,Thucydides, Aristotle's Rhetoric and Logic, Tacitus, Juvenal,Quinctilian, parts of Ovid, Terence, Nepos, Cæsar, Livy, Lucretius,Cicero, Polybius, and many other authors, besides learning geometry,algebra, and the differential calculus. But that lad was crammedscientifically like a Strasbourg goose; our ordinary modern writers arenot walking cyclopædias, and are rarely prodigious readers. It is nolonger a reproach even for a man not to know all the literature of hisspecialty; while, as for general reading, when the "Publisher'sCircular" tells us that the different books that mankind have made arenumbered by millions, we sit down in a most comfortable despair, andpick to our liking.

Prof. Huxley's ingenious if somewhat shallow evasion of the Biblicalaccount of creation, by crediting it to Milton rather than to Moses, hasperhaps aroused many minds to inquire what modern theologians really dothink of the first chapters of Genesis. This question is answered by arecent publication[12] by Dr. Cocker of the Michigan State University.In the "Theistic Conception of the World" he treats the first twochapters of the Bible as a poem, which he calls the "symbolical hymn ofcreation." It has an exordium, six strophes, each with its refrain, andan episode. He does not believe the sacred narrative intends to describethe exact mode of forming the world, nor even to set the successiveevents in order. It is an ascription, designed to embody in symbolicallanguage the fact that all existence is derived from God. One paragraphwill show the broad ground on which this conclusion is based:

But the author believes that the Mosaic account is practically correct,or perhaps we should say harmonious with the truth. It may be truthfulwithout being all the truth, or truthful and still be very defective. Heconsiders that when scientific knowledge is complete, the Scripture,rightly interpreted, will be found in harmony with its finalconclusions. How Moses was made acquainted with the events of creationis a matter upon which it is impossible to be positive. The author seesno objection to the suggestion that he may have witnessed a series ofpictures or visions, the result of which upon his mind is given in thehymn of creation. This explanation of the Biblical narrative forms but asmall part of the work, which is chiefly given to a discussion of theviews and positive discoveries of scientific men which relate to theproduction of the world. It is a remarkable tribute to the overmasteringpower of positive knowledge. Science and theology are mingled in anextraordinary way, but a way that is now necessary, for there is not oneprovince of human thought that has not been compelled to acknowledge thegreat possibilities of inductive reasoning. Dr. Cocker labors toestablish the old faith on the new ground. He is a man of great readingand has a strong belief in the religion to which he has given his heart.Every question is approached in the firm faith that when rightlyinterpreted it will be found to sustain the Christian religion. This isthe fundamental fault of the work. It is a plea for a cause that doesnot need it, for a cause that is quite as apt to lose as to gain by thedefence. The difficulty with this method of meeting the hypothesis ofscience is that the scientific views are themselves in a state ofunstable equilibrium. They may topple at any moment, and then thecorrespondence that eager devotees have found between them and the Bibleis a slur that falls altogether on the religion and not on the science.This is a great error, and those who are drawn into it belittle thecause that is dear to them. While our author is catholic in his reading,he does not seem to assign to all writers in his field their just value.His quotations, the fresh, the obsolete, the trustworthy, and thedoubtful, are mingled in a confusion that only the experienced canpenetrate. His book is creditable to[Pg 281] his unshaken faith, and itpresents the religious aspect of modern knowledge in a thorough manner.

Prof. Walker's work in both the Census Bureau and the Indian Departmentshows how original and critical his mind is. The first fruit of hisactivity as a professional teacher of political economy is an extendedtreatise on the question of wages.[19] He seems to have found himselfunable to make the views of the systematic writers always harmonize withhis own conceptions, and his work is to a considerable extentcontroversial. One of his prominent objects of attack is the wage-fundtheory, which is that wages are paid out of capital, that a certainportion of the capital in every country is charged with this duty, andthat the rate of wages could be accurately determined if the amount ofthis fund and the total number of laborers could be ascertained. Thistheory makes the savings of past labor to be the source from which wagesare paid. Prof. Walker argues that "wages are, in a philosophical viewof the subject, paid out of the product of present industry, and hencethat production furnishes the true measure of wages." Labor is anarticle which the employer buys because it forms a necessary part of acertain product which he intends to sell. The price which he expects toobtain for the product controls the amount he can afford to pay for thelabor. It is true that the money paid must necessarily come from pastsavings unless the laborers wait for their pay, as they formerly did inthis country. But in making this payment capital merely advances themoney, and its possessor receives interest for its use; the amount ofthis interest being another element that is controlled by the pricewhich the manufacturer expects to obtain for the product. Prof. Walkerthinks it not surprising that the erroneous wage-fund theory foundacceptance in England, where the facts on which it is based were firstobserved. But he marvels that American thinkers can accept it, for thecondition of some classes of laborers here was, so late as half acentury ago, a decided disproof of it. Farm hands, for instance, wereformerly often paid at the end of the year, for the reason that therewas not capital enough in farmers' hands to make the advances necessaryfor[Pg 285] weekly or monthly payments. Here was a case in which the employerclearly had to wait for the product before he could pay the wages. Nopast savings were available for the purpose. The author's arguments arealways clearly put and forcible, but his position loses strength by thevery character of his task. He has so completely separated the wagesquestion from all others, that we miss the natural collocation of wageswith the other items which make up the cost of a product. The capitalisthas one and the same purpose in buying raw material and labor, and nodiscussion of the subject can seem complete that does not proceed fromthe likeness or unlikeness of these two components of value. Anothertheory which our author combats strongly is that the interest of theemployer is sufficient to keep wages up to the highest profitable point.He holds that the laborer must be active in his own interests, or hewill never obtain that rate of payment which is necessary to his propermaintenance. Bad food reduces the quantity and quality of the laborer'swork, so that more men have to be hired for a given task, and theemployer pays more in the end for his product, than when wages are good;but even this prospective loss is not sufficient to keep employers fromexperimenting to find just that point to which wages may be loweredwithout affecting food disastrously. This disposition of the employercan be combatted only by the resistance of the laborer. Prof. Walkerthinks there is a "constantly imminent danger that bodies of laborerswill not soon enough or amply enough resent industrial injuries whichmay be wrought by the concerted action of employers or by slow andgradual changes in production, or by catastrophes in business, such ascommercial panics." Of course he does not advocate strikes, which "arethe insurrections of labor," but even these are to be judged by theirresults. The results may or may not justify them. He considers thatcoöperation is a real panacea that can successfully take the place ofviolent measures. He denies the assertion that coöperation gets rid ofthe capitalist. It merely avoids the business man, who in the presentorder of things borrows the capital, hires the laborers, and directs thebusiness. Practically he is a salaried man. Prof. Walker findsdifficulty in giving this man a title suitable for use in treatises onpolitical economy. He objects to "undertaker" and "adventurer," becausethey have other meanings, and suggests the French entrepreneur. Theobjections are well taken, but the middleman is not only a reality; healso has a name by which he is known in business. If Prof. Walker wantsto have a cellar dug or rock blasted, he can go to Pennsylvania and finda "venturer" to undertake the work; and there seems to be no good reasonwhy a term that is already in common use and well understood should berejected by the schoolmen. This is a valuable contribution to politicaleconomy, so valuable, in fact, that we can only say that it should beread, not demonstrate the fact in a short notice. 041b061a72